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Contents
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ....................................................................................................................................................... 1 PART I. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................... 2 I. GENERAL NOTES ON STYLE AND STYLISTICS........................................................................................ 2 2. EXPRESSIVE MEANS (EM) AND STYLISTIC DEVICES (SD)................................................................. 13 3. SOME NOTES ON THE PROBLEM OF THE ENGLISH LITERARY LANGUAGE (STANDARD ENGLISH).............................................................................................................................................................. 17 4. A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LITERARY LANGUAGE............. 20 5. VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE......................................................................................................................... 30 6. TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING................................................................................................................... 35 PART II. STYLISTIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY....................................... 40 1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS..................................................................................................................... 40 2. NEUTRAL, COMMON LITERARY AND COMMON COLLOQUIAL VOCABULARY......................... 42 3. SPECIAL LITERARY VOCABULARY......................................................................................................... 45 a) Terms................................................................................................................................................................ 45 b) Poetic and Highly Literary Words................................................................................................................... 47 c) Archaic Words................................................................................................................................................. 49 d) Barbarisms and Foreign Words....................................................................................................................... 52 e) Literary Coinages (Including Nonce-words)................................................................................................... 56 4. SPECIAL COLLOQUIAL VOCABULARY................................................................................................... 65 a) Slang................................................................................................................................................................ 65 b) Jargonisms........................................................................................................................................................ 70 c) Professionalisms............................................................................................................................................... 73 d) Dialectal Words............................................................................................................................................... 75 e) Vulgar Words................................................................................................................................................... 77 f) Colloquial Coinages......................................................................................................................................... 78 PART III. PHONETIC EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES............................................. 80 GENERAL NOTES................................................................................................................................................ 80 Onomatopoeia......................................................................................................................................................... 81 Alliteration............................................................................................................................................................... 83 Rhyme..................................................................................................................................................................... 84 Rhythm.................................................................................................................................................................... 85 PART IV. LEXICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES................................................ 90 A. INTENTIONAL MIXING OF THE STYLISTIC ASPECT OF WORDS...................................................... 90 B. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING......................................................... 93 1. INTERACTION OF DICTIONARY AND CONTEXTUAL LOGICAL MEANINGS............................. 94 2. INTERACTION OF PRIMARY AND DERIVATIVE LOGICAL MEANINGS.................................... 100 3. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND EMOTIVE MEANINGS.............................................................. 103 4. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND NOMINAL MEANINGS............................................................. 112 C. INTENSIFICATION OF A CERTAIN FEATURE OF A THING OR PHENOMENON.......................... 114 Simile................................................................................................................................................................. 114 Periphrasis.......................................................................................................................................................... 116 Euphemism......................................................................................................................................................... 119 Hyperbole........................................................................................................................................................... 122 D. PECULIAR USE OF SET EXPRESSIONS.................................................................................................. 122 The Cliche.......................................................................................................................................................... 123 Proverbs and Sayings......................................................................................................................................... 126 Epigrams............................................................................................................................................................ 128 Quotations.......................................................................................................................................................... 129 Allusions............................................................................................................................................................ 131 Decomposition of Set Phrases........................................................................................................................... 133 PART V. SYNTACTICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES.................................... 134 A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.................................................................................................................. 134 B. PROBLEMS CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION OF SPANS OF UTTERANCE WIDER THAN THE SENTENCE.......................................................................................................................................................... 135 The Syntactical Whole....................................................................................................................................... 135 The Paragraph.................................................................................................................................................... 139 C. COMPOSITIONAL PATTERNS OF SYNTACTICAL ARRANGEMENT................................................ 142 Stylistic Inversion.............................................................................................................................................. 143 Detached Constructions..................................................................................................................................... 145 Parallel Construction.......................................................................................................................................... 147 Chiasmus (Reversed Parallel Construction)....................................................................................................... 148 Repetition........................................................................................................................................................... 149 Enumeration....................................................................................................................................................... 153 Suspense............................................................................................................................................................. 155 Climax (Gradation)............................................................................................................................................ 156 Antithesis........................................................................................................................................................... 158 D. PARTICULAR WAYS OF COMBINING PARTS OF THE UTTERANCE.............................................. 161 Asyndeton.......................................................................................................................................................... 164 Polysyndeton..................................................................................................................................................... 164 The Gap-Sentence Link..................................................................................................................................... 165 E. PECULIAR USE OF COLLOQUIAL CONSTRUCTIONS......................................................................... 167 Ellipsis................................................................................................................................................................ 167 Break-in-the-Narrative (Aposiopesis)................................................................................................................ 168 Question-in-the- Narrative................................................................................................................................. 170 Represented Speech........................................................................................................................................... 171 F. TRANSFERRED USE OF STRUCTURAL MEANING............................................................................... 177 Rhetorical Questions.......................................................................................................................................... 177 Litotes................................................................................................................................................................ 179 PART VI. FUNCTIONAL STYLES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE....................................................... 181 A. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS..................................................................................................................... 181 B. THE BELLES-LETTRES STYLE................................................................................................................... 182 I. LANGUAGE OF POETRY.......................................................................................................................... 183 2. EMOTIVE PROSE....................................................................................................................................... 198 3. LANGUAGE OF THE DRAMA................................................................................................................. 207 C. PUBLICISTS STYLE...................................................................................................................................... 212 1. ORATORY AND SPEECHES..................................................................................................................... 213 2. THE ESSAY.................................................................................................................................................. 217 3. ARTICLES.................................................................................................................................................... 219 D. NEWSPAPER STYLE.................................................................................................................................... 219 1. BRIEF NEWS ITEMS.................................................................................................................................. 221 2. THE HEADLINE.......................................................................................................................................... 224 3. ADVERTISEMENTS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS................................................................................... 227 4. THE EDITORIAL......................................................................................................................................... 228 E. SCIENTIFIC PROSE STYLE......................................................................................................................... 230 F. THE STYLE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS................................................................................................. 233 G. FINAL REMARKS......................................................................................................................................... 238
[1] Language is said to have two functions: it serves as a means of communication and also as a means of shaping one's thoughts. The first function is called communicative, the second — expressive. [2] The word utterance will mean here and further a span of thought expressed in language units (words, syntagms, sentences, a group of sentences), both spoken and written, which presents a semantic and structural whole. [3] For the definition of the norm and its variants see pp. 12—13. [4] The influence of the Latinists can be seen, for example, in the words debt and doubt. The b was inserted to make the words look more like the Latin originals. [5] Terms born from an "ink-horn", that is words and phrases which were purposely coined by men-of-letters, and the meaning of which was obscure. [6] It is interesting to remark in passing that language theories of the 16th to the 18th centuries were in general more concerned with what we would now call macrolinguistics in contrast to the present time when the process of atomization of language facts not infrequently overshadows observations concerning the nature and properties of units of communication. [7] See examples on pp. 242—243 ("Represented Speech"). [8] We are not concerned here with other ways of homonym creation. That is the domain of lexicology. [9] The science that investigates the meanings of all signs, both linguistic and non-linguistic is called semiotics. [10] Such meanings are therefore also called derivative meanings. [11] Colouring is a loose term. It is used here as a synonym to contextual emotive meaning. But it may be used further on when we want to point out the effect on the utterance as a whole of a word with a strong emotive meaning. [12] ken=a house which harbours thieves [13] spellken=a play-house or theatre [14] to queer a fiat=to puzzle a silly fellow [15] to flash the muzzle (gun) on the high toby-spice=to rob on horse back [16] a lark=fun or sport of any kind [17] a blowing=a girl [18] swell = gentlemanly [19] nutty = pleasing (to be nuts on=to be infatuated with) [20] We shall here disregard the difference between polysemy and homonymy, it being irrelevant, more or less, for stylistic purposes. [21] It is interesting to note here that out of the four interjections used by Shakespeare in his sonnets (O, Ah, alack (alas), ay) the interjection O is used forty-eight times, Ah five times, alack — twice, and ay — twice. [22] The last two are somewhat archaic and used mostly in poetical language. Egad is also archaic. [23] Note that in the above quotations, except in the first, a well-known saying, proverb or quotation has been slightly altered in form. The traditional forms are as follows: "My fingers are all thumbs." "It is easier for a camel to pass through a needle's eye, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of Heaven." (Bible) "Don't put all your eggs into one basket." "It's the last straw that breaks the camel's back." [24] the archaic form of glitters. [25] A new term used advantageously in stylistics and signifying the whole. [26] A quotation from Byron's "English Bards and Scotch Reviewers" will be apt as a comment here: "With just enough of learning to misquote." [27] A proposed law permitting the death penalty for breaking machines (at the time of the Luddite movement). [28] There is a device (not linguistic but literary) which is called anticlimax. The ideas expressed may be arranged in ascending order of significance, or they may be poetical or elevated, but the final one, which the reader expects to be the culminating one, as in climax, is trifling or farcical. There is a sudden drop from the lofty or serious to the ridiculous. A typical example is Aesop's fable "The Mountain in Labour." "In days of yore, a mighty rumbling was heard in a Mountain. It was said to be in labour, and multitudes flocked together, from far and near, to see what it would produce. After long expectation and many wise conjectures from the by-standers—out popped, a Mouse!" Here we have deliberate anticlimax, which is a recognized form of humour. Anticlimax is frequently used by humorists like Mark Twain and Jerome K. Jerome. In "Three Men in a Boat", for example, a poetical passage is invariably followed by a ludicrous scene. For example, the author expands on the beauties of the sunset on the river and concludes: " But we didn ' t sail into the world of golden sunset: we went slap into that old punt where the gentlemen were fishing. " Another example is: "This war-like speech, received with many a cheer, Had filled them with desire of fame, and beer ."
[29] This is the reason that both rhythm and rhyme have been treated in Part III outside the chapter on versification. [30] Many linguists hold that verse rhythm is based on alternation between stronger and weaker stresses. They maintain that four degrees of stresses are easily recognizable. But for the sake of abstraction—an indispensable process in scientific, investigation—the opposition of stressed—unstressed syllables is the only authentic way of presenting the problem of verse rhythm. [31] The word 'style' is used here not in the terminological sense employed in this book, but in a more general, looser application. [32] Compare the use of vulgar words (swear-words, obscenities and the like) in English and particularly in American emotive prose of the present day. See for example John O'Hara's novel "From the Terrace". [33] See for example John O'Hara's "From the Terrace". [34] In some specimens of scientific prose the references are placed at the back of the book and shaped as an appendix. In that case reference numbers will be found in the body of the book. Дата добавления: 2015-09-27 | Просмотры: 687 | Нарушение авторских прав |