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Metaphor. A metaphoris a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or features of the

A metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts.

The more obvious the similarity, the less need there is for deciphering words in the context. Thus in

Dear Nature is the kindest Mother still." (Byron, "Childe Harold")

no explanatory words are used. Nature is likened to a Mother in her attitude to man. The action of nursing is implied but not directly stated.

In the following example, however, an explanation is given:

"The indicators became enemies if they lagged behind his wish: dear and reliable friends when they showed what he wanted."

(Mitchel Wilson, "Live with Lightning")

The explanatory words 'if they...', 'when they...' help the reader to decipher the true meaning of the metaphor.

Metaphor can be embodied in all the meaningful parts of speech, in nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and sometimes even in the auxiliary parts' of speech, as in prepositions.

In "The human tide is rolling westward." (Dickens, "Dombey and Son"), the metaphor is embodied in the adjective.

"In the slanting beams that streamed through the open window, the dust danced and was golden." (O. Wilde, "The Picture of Dorian Gray")

Here the metaphors lie in the verbs.

"The leaves fell sorrowfully ."

Here it is the adverb that is a metaphor.

The metaphor is a well-known semantic way of building new meanings and new words. "It is due to the metaphor" according to the remark of Quintilian, "that each thing seems to have its name in language." Even language has been figuratively defined as a dictionary of faded metaphors.

"Try to be precise," writes J. Middleton Murry, "and you are bound to be metaphorical; you simply cannot help establishing affinities between all the provinces of the animate and inanimate world."

Metaphors, like all stylistic devices can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors which are absolutely unexpected, i.e., are quite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors. Those which are commonly used in speech and therefore are sometimes even fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite metaphors, or dead metaphors. Their predictability therefore is apparent. Genuine metaphors are regarded as belonging to language-in-action, i.e., speech metaphors;, trite metaphors belong to the language-as-a-system, i.e. language proper, and are usually fixed in dictionaries as units of the language.

V. V. Vinogradov states:

"...a metaphor, if it is not a cliche, is an act of establishing an individual world outlook, it is an act of subjective isolation... Therefore a word metaphor is narrow, subjectively enclosed,...it imposes on the reader a subjective view of the object or phenomenon and its semantic ties."

The examples given above may serve as illustrations of genuine metaphors. Here are some examples of metaphors that are considered trite. They are time-worn and well rubbed'into the language: a ray of. hope, floods of tears, a storm of indignation, a flight of fancy, a gleam of mirth, a shadow of a smile and the like.

The interaction of the logical dictionary meaning and the logical contextual meaning assumes different forms. Sometimes this interaction is perceived as a deliberate interplay of the two meanings. In this case each of the meanings preserves its relative independence. Sometimes, however, the metaphoric use of a word begins to affect the source meaning, i.e. the meaning from which the metaphor is derived, with the result that the target meaning, that is the metaphor itself, takes the upper hand and may even oust the source meaning. In this case we speak of dead metaphors.

Thus in such words as tograsp (= 'to understand'), toget (='to understand'), tosee (= 'to understand'), the meaning in brackets has become a derivative logical meaning and is fixed by all existing dictionaries as such. The metaphorical origin of these meanings can hardly be perceived. There is no interplay of the two meanings. Consequently, there is no stylistic device, no metaphor.

In such words as tomelt ( away ) as in "these misgivings gradually meltedaway ," we can still recognize remnants of the original meaning and in spite of the fact that the meaning tovanish, todisappear is already fixed in dictionaries as one of the derivative meanings, the primary meaning still makes itself felt.

Trite metaphors are sometimes injected with new vigour, i.e. their primary meaning is re-established alongside the new (derivative) meaning. This is done by supplying the central image created by the metaphor with additional words bearing some reference to the main word. For example: "Mr. Pickwick bottledup his vengeance and corkeditdown .'" The verb tobottleup is explained in dictionaries as follows: "to keep in check" ("Penguin Dictionary"); "to conceal, to restrain, repress" ("Cassell's New English Dictionary"). So the metaphor in the word can hardly be felt. But it is revived by the direct meaning of the verb tocorkdown. This context refreshes the almost dead metaphor and gives it a second life. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged. Here is another example of a sustained metaphor:

"Mr. Dombey's cup of satisfaction was so full at this moment, however, that he felt he could afford adroportwoofitscontents, even to sprinkle on the dust in the by-path of his little daughter." (Dickens, "Dombey and Son")

We may call the principal metaphor the central image of the sustained metaphor and the other words which bear reference to the central image — contributory images. Thus in the example given the word cup (of satisfaction) being a trite metaphor is revived by me following contributory images: full, drop, contents, sprinkle. It is interesting to note that both the central image ( thecup ) and the contributory words are used in two senses simultaneously: direct and indirect. The second plane of utterance is maintained by the key word — satisfaction. It is this word that helps us to decipher the idea behind the sustained metaphor.

Sometimes however the central image is not given, but the string of words all bearing upon some implied central point of reference are so associated with each other that the reader is bound to create the required image in his mind. Let us take the following sentence from Shakespeare:

"I have no spur to prick the sides of my intent." The words spur, toprick, thesides in their interrelation will inevitably create the image of a steed.'/.(.

The same is to be seen in the following lines from Shelley's "Cloud":

"In a cavern under is fettered the thunder,

It struggles and howls at fits."

Here the central image — that of a captive beast — is suggested by the contributory images — fettered, struggles and howls.

The metaphor is often defined as a compressed simile. But this definition lacks precision. Moreover it is misleading, inasmuch as the metaphor aims at identifying the objects, while the simile aims at finding some point of resemblance by keeping the objects apart. That is why these two stylistic devices are viewed as belonging to two different groups of SDs. They are different in their linguistic nature.

True, the degree of identification of objects or phenomena in a metaphor varies according to its syntactic function in the sentence and to the part of speech in which it is embodied. Thus when the metaphor is. expressed in a noun-predicative, the degree of identification is very low. This is due to the character of the predicative relation in general. The metaphor in this case can be likened to an epithet.

Indeed, in the sentence 'Expression is the dress of thought' we can hardly see any process of identification between the concepts expression and dress; whereas in the lines

"Yet Time, who changes all, had altered him

In soul and aspect as in age: years steal

Fire from the mind as vigour from the limb;

And Life's enchanted cup but sparkles near the brim.

(Byron. "Childe Harold")

The metaphors steal, fire, cup, brim embodied in verbs and nouns not used predicatively can be regarded as fully identified with the concepts they aim at producing.

The metaphor is one of the most powerful means of creating images. This is its main function. Genuine metaphors are mostly to be found in poetry and emotive prose. Trite metaphors are generally used as expressive means in newspaper articles, in oratorical style and even in scientific language. The use of trite metaphors should not be regarded as a drawback of style. They help the writer to enliven his work and even make the meaning more concrete.

There is constant interaction between genuine and trite metaphors. Genuine, metaphors, if they are good and can stand the test of time, may, through frequent repetition, become trite and consequently easily predictable. Trite metaphors, as has been shown, may regain their freshness through the process of prolongation of the metaphor.

Metaphors may be sustained not only on the basis of a trite" metaphor. The initial metaphor may be genuine and may also be developed through a number of contributory images so that the whole of the utterance becomes one sustained metaphor. A skilfully written example of such a metaphor is to be found in Shakespeare's Sonnet No 24.

The central image — "The eye — the painter" is developed through a number of contributory images: todraw, tostell, table, frame, hanging (picture) and the like.

In conclusion it will be of interest to show the results of the interaction between the dictionary and contextual meanings.

The constant use of a metaphor, i.e. a word in which two meanings are blended, gradually leads to the breaking up of the primary meaning. The metaphoric use of the word begins to affect the dictionary meaning, adding to it fresh connotations or shades of meaning. But this influence, however strong it may be, will never reach the degree where the dictionary meaning entirely disappears. If it did, we should have no stylistic device. It is a law of stylistics that in a stylistic device the stability of the dictionary meaning is always retained, no matter how great the influence of the contextual meaning may be.

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